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'''Антарктида''' — қитъа, материк дар қисми марказии [[Антарктика]].
{{тарҷума}}
{{otheruses}}
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[[Акс:Proposed flag of Antarctica (Graham Bartram).svg|center|250px]]<small>(парчами пешкаш карда шудаи Антарктида, на парчами расмӣ)</small>
Қариб пурра дар доираи Қутби Ҷанубӣ воқеъ буда, фақат қисми шимолии нимҷазира Антарктида ва баъзе минтақаҳои канории Антарктидаи Шарқӣ аз ин доира берунанд. Антарктида нисбат ба Қутби Ҷанубӣ ғайрисимметрӣ хобидааст. Антарктида аз ҷиҳати географӣ ба ду қисм тақсим мешавад: Антарктидаи Шарқӣ ва Антарктидаи Ғарбӣ. Антарктидаи Ғарбӣ дар шакли нимҷаз. камбари дароз ба самти Шимол тӯл кашидааст. Нуқтаи шимолтарини Антарктида (димоғаи Сифре дар нимҷазираи Антарктида) то 63°13<sup>′</sup> арзи ҷанубӣ расида, аз қитъаи наздиктарин — Америкаи Ҷанубӣ дар масофаи 1200 км воқеъ гардидааст. Атрофи Антарктидаро уқёнусҳои Атлантик, Ором ва Ҳинд (бо 11 баҳр) иҳота кардаанд; канораҳои ба Антарктида наздики онҳоро Уқёнуси Ҷанубӣ меноманд. Масоҳати Антарктида 14 млн км<sup>2</sup> (1,6 млн км<sup>2</sup>-и он аз пирях ва ҷазираҳои шелфӣ иборат аст; ин ҷазираҳоро пиряхҳо ба материк пайвастаанд). Баландии миёнаи Антарктида 2300 м аст ва аз ин рӯ он баландтарин қитъаи олам ҳисоб мешавад.
[[Акс:LocationAntarctica.png|250px|Ҷойгиршавии Антарктида]]
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| '''[[Масоҳат]]''' || 14,000,000 км² (280,000 км² бе ях, 13,720,000 км² яхпӯш)
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| '''[[Аҳолӣ]]''' || ~1000 (доимӣ не)
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| '''[[Ҳукумат]]''' ||аз тарафи [[Созишнома дар бораи Антарктика]]
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| '''Partial Territorial claims''' || {{парчами Аргентина}} <br /> {{Парчами Австралия}} <br /> {{Парчами Чили}} <br /> {{Парчами Фаронса}} <br /> {{парчами Зеландияи Нав}} <br /> {{парчами Норвегия}} <br /> {{парчами Подшоҳии Муттаҳида}}
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| '''Интернет [[Top-level domain|TLD]]''' || [[.aq]]
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| '''Коди телефон''' || +672
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[[Акс:Austral-Ice.jpg|210px|thumb|right|Antarctic Peninsula glacier.]]
'''Антарктида''' ({{lang-gr| νταρκτικός}}} - муқобили [[Арктика]]) қитъаи ҷанубтарини замин мебошад ва мавқеи ҷуғрофии [[Қутби Ҷануб]] тақрибан дар маркази Антарктида воқеъ аст. Соҳилҳои Антарктидаро аз чор тараф [[Уқёнуси Ҷанубӣ]] иҳота кардааст. Ба ҳисоби миёна Антарктида байни қитъаҳои замин аз ҳама хунуктарин, аз ҳама хушктарин, аз ҳама сербодтарин ва аз ҳама баладтарин ба ҳисоб меравад.<ref>{{cite web | title=National Geophysical Data Center | publisher=National Satellite, Data, and Information Service| url=http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html | accessdate=9 June | accessyear=2006}}</ref> Масоҳати Антарктида 14425 миллион км² буда, аз рӯи масоҳат байни қитъаҳои хурд баъд аз [[Аврупо]] ва [[Океания]] ҷои сеюмро ишғол менамояд ва 98% он бо [[ях]] пӯшонида шудааст. Because there is little [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest [[desert]] in the world. There are no permanent human residents and Antarctica has never had an indigenous population. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including [[penguin]]s, [[fur seals]], [[moss]]es, [[lichen]]s, and many types of [[algae]]. The name "Antarctica" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''ανταρκτικός'' (''antarktikos''), meaning "opposite the [[Arctic]]." <ref>{{cite web | author=[[Henry Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]] and [[Robert Scott|Scott, Robert]] | work=[[A Greek-English Lexicon]] | publisher=Clarendon Press | title={{polytonic|ἀνταρκτικός}} | year=1940 | url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 | accessdate=12 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref>
== Сохти ==
Although myths and speculation about a ''[[Terra Australis]]'' ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the [[Russia]]n expedition of [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev|Mikhail Lazarev]] and [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]]. However, the continent remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolated location.
геологӣ
Қисми зиёди материк (Антарктидаи Шарқӣ)-ро платформаи токембрийи Антарктида ташкил медиҳад, ки онро кӯҳҳои нисбатан ҷавон иҳота кардаанд. Қабати поёниаш аз гнейсҳои протерозой ва архей, варақсангҳои кристаллӣ, магматит ва гранитоид иборат аст. Дар ин қабат ҷинсҳои кристаллии қадимтарини қишри замин кашф шудаанд, ки синнашонро 4 млрд сол муқаррар кардаанд. Қабати мобайнии платформа аз таҳнишастҳои давраи протерозой — оҳаксанг, регсанг ва конгломерат; қабати болоӣ аз америт, варақсангҳои лойдори давраи палеозой ва мезозой (давраҳои аввали яхбандии Антарктида — 300 ва 150 млн сол пеш) иборат аст. Ин қабат боқимондаҳои наботот (аз ҷумла чӯб) ва ҳайвоноти баҳрӣ дорад, ки дар ин ҷо то давраи чорумин, яъне то ба вуҷуд омадани «сипар»-и яклухти яхбандии антарктикӣ мавҷуд будаанд. Платформаи Антарктида иборат аз системаи мураккаби тарқишҳои қишри замин буда, ягона вулқони фаъоли қитъа — Эребус ба он мансуб аст. Ҳудуди Антарктидаи Ғарбиро минтақаи чиндори андӣ ишғол кардааст. Дар Антарктида конҳои ангишт, нефт, оҳан, мис, тилло, сурб, руҳ, графит ва минералҳои берилл, булӯри кӯҳӣ ошкор гардидаанд, вале онҳоро бо сабабҳои иқтисодию сиёсӣ истихроҷ намекунанд (мувофиқи Аҳднома оид ба Антарктика тамоми фаъолияти ба захираҳои табиӣ равонашуда, ғайр аз таҳқиқоти илмӣ, манъ аст).
== Релйеф ==
The [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] was signed in 1959 by 12 countries. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's [[ecozone]]. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests.{{fact}}
Антарктида аз материкҳои дигар бо яхбандии ғафс фарқ мекунад. Фақат наздики 1 фоизи ҳудуди Антарктида яхпӯш нест, он мавзеъҳои холиро «воҳаҳои антарктикӣ» меноманд ва онҳо минтақаҳои бузурги аз даҳҳо то садҳо км<sup>2</sup>-ро фаро мегиранд; қуллаҳои ҷудогона, қаторкӯҳҳо ва қитъаҳои на он қадар калони хушкиҳои назди соҳил (воҳахои Антарктида) аз он ҷумлаанд. Дар Антарктида ғафсии қабати ях ба ҳисоби миёна 1720 м, ҷойи ғафстаринаш то 5000 м, ҳаҷми умумии ях 24 млн км<sup>3</sup> аст. Қабати ғафстарини ях дар пастхамиҳои материк вомехӯрад ва умқи чунин пастхамиҳо аз 1,5 км бештар аст. Релйефи хушкии зери яхи Антарктида, ки дар давраи неоген шакл гирифтааст, 410 м баландии миёнаи мутлақ дошта, баъзе қисмаш (ҳамвориҳои Шмидт ва Восточная — Шарқӣ) аз сатҳи уқёнус паст ва баъзеи дигар (ҳамвориҳои Бэрд ва Западная — Ғарбӣ) аз ин сатҳ баланд мебошанд. Шакли релйефи Антарктида такрори маҳзи хушкии он аст, яъне замини Антарктида дар вақти холигиаш чӣ шакл дошт, ҳоло яхбастагиҳояш ҳамон шаклро доранд. Системаи кӯҳии бузургтарини қитъа — кӯҳҳои Трансантарктика (дарозиаш то 4 ҳазор км, баландии миёнааш то 3000 м) Антарктидаи Шарқиро аз Антарктидаи Ғарбӣ ҷудо мекунад. Он аз қаторкӯҳҳои Пенсакола, Хорлик, Терон, Куин-Мод (Маликаи Мӯд), Куин-Александра ва ғайра иборат мебошад. Массиви Винсон дар кӯҳҳои Элсуорт нуқтаи баландтарини Антарктида (5140 м) аст. Дар қисми марказии Антарктида кӯҳҳои Гамбутсев ҷойгиранд. Соҳилҳои Антарктидаи Шарқиро кӯҳҳои Вернадский, Шукин, Принс-Чарлз, Голитсин ва Юсарп иҳота кардаанд. Антарктидаи Шарқиро «сипар»-и бузурги гунбазшакли пиряхӣ (баландиаш то 4000 м) ва Антарктидаи Ғарбиро ду «гунбаз»-и пиряхӣ бо баландии мутлақи 2000 м ишғол намудаанд. Сатҳи яхпӯши Антарктида тарқишҳои бисёр дорад, ки боиси канда шудани пиряхҳо мегарданд. Дар ҷойҳои релйефаш мураккаб яхҳои кӯчии аз ноҳияҳои марказӣ ба уқёнус ҳаракаткунанда ғарам шуда, пиряхҳои камбари «роҳкушо»-ро ташкил медиҳанд (масалан, пиряхи Ламберт, дарозиаш беш аз 500 км), ки ба тавассути онҳо яхҳои кӯчида бемамониат ба уқёнус мефароянд. Пиряхҳо — яхпораҳои мусаттаҳи шинокунанда (ғафсиашон то 800 м) баъзан ба канори ҷазираҳо ё баландиҳои зериобӣ такя зада, қарор мегиранд. Бузургтарини онҳо пиряхҳои Росс, Ронне, Георги IV, Ларсен, Гетс, Рисер-Ларсен, Эймери, Филхнер мебошанд.
== Иқлим, обҳои дохилӣ ==
== Кашфиёт ==
Иқлими Антарктидаро минтақаҳои наздиқутбӣ, баландиҳои бузурги мутлақ, яхбандии доимӣ ва хусусияти уқёнуси атрофи он муайян мекунанд. Тавозуни солонаи радиатсионии Антарктида манфӣ аст. Танҳо дар ҳудуди воҳаҳои антарктикӣ тавозуни радиатсионии сатҳи замин мусбат мебошад: тобистон сахраҳо то +30°С ва ҳавои наздик ба Замин то +11°С ва бештар гарм мешавад. Дар давраи шаби қутбӣ анбӯҳи ҳавои дар болои уқёнусҳо ташаккулёфта барои Антарктида ягона манбаи гармӣ мебошад. Лекин аз ҳисоби шуоъафкании дарозмавҷ ноҳияҳои марказии Антарктида дар фасли зимистон энергияро нисбат ба он ки мегиранд, бештар харҷ мекунанд ва ин сабабгори доимо сард будани ҳавои Антарктида аст. Иқлими Антарктида ба 3 минтақаи калон тақсим мешавад: минтақаҳои баландкӯҳи дохили материк, нишебиҳои пиряхӣ ва минтақаҳои назди соҳил. Минтақаи дохили материк сатҳи марказии пуштакӯҳи пиряхии Антарктидаро, ки аз 3000 м баландтар воқеъ аст, дар бар мегирад. Дар ин ҷо ҳарорати пасттарини кураи Замин, ҳавои софи ҳамешагӣ ва бодҳои суст ҳукмфармоянд. Ҳарорати миёнаи солона −57°С, ҳарорати пасттарин −89,2°С (июли 1983 дар пойгоҳи автоматии «Восток» ба қайд гирифта шудааст) мебошад. Дар ин ҷо миқдори боришоти солона аз 50 мм зиёд нест ва ин боришот дар шакли қирав, сутунчаҳои яхӣ ё яхи сӯзаншакл зоҳир мешаванд. Антисик- лони антарктикӣ ҳамеша дар иҳотаи сиклонҳои дигар буда, аз Ғарб ба Шарқ ҳаракат мекунад. Баъзан ин сиклонҳо ба минтақаҳои дохили материк ворид шуда, тундбоду бӯрон (суръати бод 50 м/с), барфрезиҳои шадид ба вуҷуд меоваранд. Дар ин минтақаҳо миқдори боришоти солона ба 300—700 ва дар қисми шим. ғарбии нимҷаз. Антарктида то 1000 мм мерасад. Минтақаи нишебиҳои пиряхӣ аз дохили материк ба Шимол паҳн шуда, ҳарорати миёнаи солонаи он — 20 — 50°С мебошад. Дар ин ҷо ҳарорати пасти муттасил, бодҳои шадиди доимӣ ва бӯронҳо, ки аз дохили материк мевазанд, ҳукмронанд. Минтақаи назди соҳил Антарктидаро дар шакли мавзеи борик иҳота кардааст: ҳарорати миёнаи солонаи ин ҷо нисбатан баландтар (-10° −20°С) буда, дар қисми зиёди соҳилҳо зуд-зуд тӯфону бӯрон ба амал меоянд. Захираҳои асосии оби Антарктида дар яхи он (24 млн км<sup>3</sup>) аст. Коршиносон ҳисоб кардаанд, ки дар сурати об шудани ин яхҳо, сатҳи Уқёнуси Олам 60 м боло меравад. Ҳаҷми яхҳоро боришоти атмосферӣ (дар як сол 2200 км<sup>3</sup>) пурра карда меистанд. Дар аксар минтақаҳои Антарктидаи Шарқӣ афзун гардидани массаи ях мушоҳида мешавад. Дар канораҳои Антарктида бошад, баръакс, камшавии ях ба назар мерасад, чунки яхпораҳо дар шакли айсбергҳо канда шуда ба уқёнус мераванд ва барф соле 200—250 мм бухор мешавад. Суръати ҳаракати яхпораҳо дар ин ҷо дар як сол 20 — 100 м ва дар пиряхҳои кӯчӣ то 1500 м мебошад. Дар тобистон обшавии рӯи ях ва зери он бештар дар канораҳои қитъа мушоҳида мешавад. Дар воҳаҳо яхҳои обшуда бо ҷӯй ва наҳрҳо равон мешаванд ва ба кӯлҳои кӯҳӣ (дар баландии то 1000 м, масалан, Замини Маликаи Мӯд ва Замини Виктория) мерезанд. Тадқиқоти солҳои охир зиёда аз 70 кӯли бузурги зери «сипар»-и қисми марказии Антарктидаро кашф кардаанд: калонтаринашон кӯли Восток — Шарқ (дарозиаш 220 км, бараш 70 км) мебошад. Ин кӯлҳо, ки дар зарфи 500 ҳазор сол атмосфераро надидаанд, бояд дар худ нодиртарин маълумотро оид ба шароити иқлими гузаштаи дури ин қитъа дошта бошанд. Хоки воҳаҳо ва мавзеъҳои назди соҳил моддаҳои органикии хеле кам дошта, ба хоки биёбонҳои баландкӯҳ монанд аст ва дар баъзе ҷойҳо то чуқурии 100 м ях мебандад.
[[Акс:Orpheus-Gate.jpg|210px|thumb|right|Ice cap. Although this and the other pictures on this page show interesting features, a "typical" picture of Antarctica would show nothing but a flat white snowfield.]]
[[Акс:Port-Lockroy.jpg|210px|thumb|right|[[Port Lockroy]] Museum.]]
{{main|History of Antarctica}}
Belief in the existence of a ''Terra Australis'' — a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa — had existed since [[Ptolemy]] suggested the idea in order to preserve [[symmetry]] of [[landmass]] in the world. Depictions of a large southern landmass were common in maps such as the early 16th century Turkish [[Piri Reis map]]. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that [[South America]] and [[Australia]] were not part of "Antarctica," geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.
== Олами наботот ==
European maps continued to show this land until [[Captain]] [[James Cook]]'s ships, ''[[HMS Resolution (Cook)|Resolution]]'' and ''[[HMS Adventure (1771)|Adventure]]'', crossed the [[Antarctic Circle]] on [[January 17]], [[1773]] and again in 1774.<ref>{{cite web | author=The Mariners' Museum | title=Age of Exploration: John Cook | url=http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php | accessdate=12 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref> The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by two individuals. According to various organizations (the [[National Science Foundation]],<ref>{{cite web | author=U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel of the [[National Science Foundation]] | title=Antarctica—Past and Present | url=http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf | accessdate=6 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref> [[NASA]],<ref>NASA, U.S. Government [http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html Palmer biography] Retrieved [[February 6]] [[2006]].</ref> the [[University of California, San Diego]],<ref>University of California, San Diego [http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html Palmer Station] Retrieved [[February 5]] [[2006]].</ref> and other sources<ref>South-Pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000052.htm An Antarctic Time Line : 1519 - 1959]. Retrieved [[February 12]] [[2006]]</ref><ref>Polar Radar for Ice Sheet Measurements. [http://ku-prism.org/polarscientist/timeline/antarcticexplorers1800.html Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s]. Retrieved [[February 12]] [[2006]].</ref>), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820: [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), [[Edward Bransfield]] (a captain in the British Navy), and [[Nathaniel Palmer]] (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Von Bellingshausen supposedly saw Antarctica on [[January 27]], [[1820]], three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the two ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev]] reached a point within 32 km (20 miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there.
Олами набототи Антарктидаро ушна, гулсанг, обсабзҳо, замбӯруғҳо ва ғайра ташкил медиҳанд. Олами ҳайвоноташ низ хеле камбағалу якранг аст. Дар ин ҷо ҳашароти қанотдор, ширхорҳои хушкигард ва моҳиҳои обҳои ширин вонамехӯранд, танҳо якчанд намуди буғумпойҳо ва бактерияҳо дучор меоянд. Аз парандагон асосан пингвин, мурғи тӯфон, моҳихӯраки шимолӣ ва белпойҳо бисёранд. Антарктида аҳолии муқимӣ надорад. Дар қитъа ва ҷазираҳои наздисоҳилии он 45 маркази тадқиқотӣ ва пойгоҳҳои давлатҳои гуногун ҷойгиранд. Дар баъзе пойгоҳҳо шаҳракҳои барои зисти дарозмуддат ҷиҳозонида ҳастанд.
Экспедитсияи баҳрнавардони рус (1819 — 21) бо роҳбарии Ф. Ф. Беллинсгаузен ва М. П. Лазарев, ки Антарктидаро январи 1920 кашф намуд, дар бораи мавҷудияти хушкии даруни доираи Қутби Ҷанубӣ маълумоти аввалин дод. Аз ин пеш вуҷуд доштани материки ҷанубиро (лотинӣ Terra Australis) тахмин мекарданд ва аксаран онро бо Америкаи Ҷанубӣ (масалан, дар харитаи соли 1513 тартибдодаи Пири-Реис) ва ё Австралия (номи лотиниаш далолат мекунад) якҷо медонистанд. Ҳамин экспедитсия вуҷуд доштани қитъаи шашуми оламро тасдиқ кард. Ибтидои асри 20 тадқиқотчиёни Қутб — англисҳо Р. Скотт (1901 — 04, 1910 — 12) ва Э. Шелтон (1907 — 09), норвег Р. Амундсен (1910 — 12) аввалин шуда ба Қутби Ҷанубӣ расиданд; австралиягӣ Д. Моусон (1911 — 14) ва дигарон ба ноҳияҳои дохили материк сафарҳо карданд. Аз соли 1928 омӯзиши Антарктида бо ёрии самолётҳо оғоз ёфт; америкоӣ Ҷ. Уилкинс (1928 — 30), англис Л. Элсуорт (1935, 1938 — 39), америкоӣ Р. Бэрд (1929 — 31, 1933 — 35, 1939 — 41, 1946 — 47) дар ин бобат ташаббус нишон доданд. Тадқиқоти нави Антарктида дар давраи сеюмини Соли байналхалқии геофизикӣ (1957 — 58) вусъат ёфт. Дар ин муддат доир ба омӯхтани Антарктида корҳои бузурге анҷом дода шуда, пойгоҳҳои махсуси илмӣ таъсис ёфтанд. Дар омӯзиши Антарктида саҳми экспедитсияҳои антарктикии советӣ бузург аст. Сеяки соҳилҳои Антарктидаро олимони советӣ тадқиқ карда, бештар аз 200 объекти номаълумро дар харитаи қитъа қайд намуданд.
In 1841, explorer [[James Clark Ross]] passed through what is now known as the [[Ross Sea]] and discovered [[Ross Island]]. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the [[Ross Ice Shelf]]. [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] are named after two ships from his expedition: ''[[HMS Erebus (1826)|HMS Erebus]]'' and ''[[HMS Terror (1813)|HMS Terror]]''.<ref>[http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm James Clark Ross] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved [[February 12]] [[2006]].</ref>
[[Акс:Shackleton_expedition.jpg|left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton]]'s [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] in 1914.]]
During an [[expedition]] led by [[Ernest Shackleton]] in 1907, parties led by [[T. W. Edgeworth David]] became the first to climb [[Mount Erebus]] and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]].<ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6660 ''Tannatt William Edgeworth David''] Retrieved [[February 7]] [[2006]].</ref> On [[December 14]], [[1911]], a party led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''[[Fram]]'' became the first to reach the geographic [[South Pole]], using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] and up the [[Axel Heiberg Glacier]]. This area had been previously visited by the long-forgotten "Claus Expedition", with which most readers are unfamiliar.<ref>South-pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm ''Roald Amundsen''] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved [[February 9]] [[2006]].</ref>
Иттифоқи Советӣ то миёнаи солҳои 80 асри 20 дар омӯзиши Қутби Ҷанубӣ мавқеи назаррас дошт ва ҳоло Федератсияи Русия ин мавқеъро аз даст надодааст. Айни ҳол азхудкунии Антарктида дар баробари азхудкунии кайҳон масъалаи аввалиндараҷа дар арсаи ҷаҳон гардидааст. Экспедитсияи аввалин ва расмии Тоҷикистон ба Антарктида (дар ҳайати экспедитсияи илмию тадқиқотии Русия) тибқи Қарори Ҳукумати Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон (№ 587 аз 30 ноябри 2007) аз 29 октябри 2008 то 24 майи 2009 дар шахси профессор Абдулҳамид Қаюмов сурат гирифтааст. Дар бахши иқлимшиносӣ ин муҳаққиқи тоҷик якҷоя бо мутахассисони Институти Арктика ва Антарктикаи Агентии метеорологияи назди Вазорати ҳифзӣ табиати Русия дар омӯзиши мавзӯи глобалии тағйирёбии иқлим, таъсири он ба муҳити атроф, ба пиряхҳо ва мутобиқшавии инсон ба ин тағйирот машғул шуда, ба натиҷаҳои назаррас ноил гардидаанд. Натиҷаи ин тадқиқот чун модели дақиқи омӯзиши тағйирёбии иқлим эътироф шудааст ва чунин омӯзиш дар шароити лабораторӣ имкон надорад. Дастовардҳои ин экспедитсия ба шароити иқлими Тоҷикистон, пиряхҳо ва мавзеъҳои яхбастагии доимии он татбиқ хоҳад шуд. Дар қитъаи шашуми олам партавфишон будани Парчами давлатии Тоҷикистон боиси ифтихор аст ва аҳамияти бузурги сиёсӣ дорад. Оид ба таърихи тадқиқоти Антарктида ва низоми байналмилалию ҳуқуқии Антарктида нигар низ [[Антарктика]].
[[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research.<ref>70South. [http://www.70south.com/resources/antarctic-history/explorers/richardbyrd/ Richard Byrd]. Retrieved [[February 12]] [[2006]].</ref> However, it was not until [[October 31]], [[1956]] that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral [[George Dufek]] successfully landed an aircraft there.<ref>U.S. Navy. [http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm Dates in American Naval History: October]. Retrieved [[February 12]] [[2006]].</ref>
== Эзоҳ ==
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== ҶуғрофияАдабиёт ==
* Трешников А. Ф., История открытия, исследования Антарктиды, М., 1963;
{{Main|Ҷуғрофияи Антарктида}}
* География Антарктиды, М., 1968; Новая Российская Энциклопедия, М., 2005.
== Сарчашма ==
[[Акс:Antarctica_6400px_from_Blue_Marble.jpg|thumb|right|A satellite composite image of Antarctica.]]
* {{ЭМТ|Антарктида|муаллиф=А. Қаюмов|1}}
[[Акс:Maritime-Antarctica.jpg|thumb|right|Maritime Antarctica.]]
[[Акс:Europe_antarctica_size.png|thumb|Size comparison Europe-Antarctica.]]
Most of Antarctica is located south of the [[Antarctic Circle]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]]. It is the southernmost [[land mass]] and comprises more than 14 million km², making it the fifth-largest continent. The coastline measures 17 968 km (11,160 miles) and is mostly characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983)'''
|-
! Type !! Frequency
|-
| [[Ice shelf]] (floating ice front)
|align=right| 44%
|-
| Ice walls (resting on ground)
|align=right| 38%
|-
| Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall)
|align=right| 13%
|-
| Rock
|align=right| 5%
|-
! Total
|align=right| 100%
|}
Physically, it is divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]]. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[West Antarctica|Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the [[Greenwich meridian]].
About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the [[Antarctic ice sheet]]. The [[ice sheet]] is, on average, 2.5 kilometers (1.6 miles) thick. The continent has approximately 90% of the world's [[fresh water]], in the form of ice.<ref name="cia">Central Intelligence Agency [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html Factbook] Retrieved [[February 6]] [[2006]].</ref> In most of the interior of the continent precipitation is very low, down to 20 mm/yr; in a few "[[blue ice]]" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.
Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, [[Sea level change|ocean levels]] would rise by several meters in a relatively [[geological timescale|geologically short]] period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic [[ice stream]]s, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many [[Ice shelf#Antarctic ice shelves|Antarctic ice shelves]].
[[Акс:Mt_erebus.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mt. Erebus]], an active volcano on [[Ross Island]].]]
[[Vinson Massif]], the highest peak in Antarctica at 4892 meters (16,050 feet), is located in the [[Ellsworth Mountains]]. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only [[Deception Island]] and [[Mt. Erebus]] are active. Mount Erebus, located in [[Ross Island]], is the southernmost active volcano. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.<ref>British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/About_Antarctica/Rock/Volcanoes.html Volcanoes]. Retrieved [[February 13]] [[2006]].</ref> In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.<ref>National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100385 Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica]. Retrieved [[February 13]] [[2006]]</ref>
Antarctica is home to more than 70 [[lake]]s that lie thousands of meters under the surface of the continental ice sheet. [[Lake Vostok]], discovered beneath [[Russia]]'s [[Vostok Station]] in 1996, is the largest of these [[subglacial lake]]s. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain [[microorganism|microbial life]]. The sealed, frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with [[Jupiter]]'s moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]]. Confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok strengthens the argument for life on the satellite.<ref>National Science Foundation [http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/02/fslakevostok.htm Lake Vostok] Retrieved [[February 6]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>NASA [http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/stories/europa_vostok_0899.html Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa] Retrieved [[February 4]] [[2006]].</ref>
It is also interesting to note that some [[Flat Earth|Flat-Earthers]] don't believe in the existence of Antarctica.
{{seealso|Extreme points of Antarctica|Antarctic territories|List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands}}
== Geology ==
=== Geology of present-day Antarctica ===
[[Акс:AntarcticaRockSurface.jpg|thumb|250px|Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass.]]
The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as [[remote sensing]] have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.
Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the [[Andes]] of [[South America]].<ref name="Stonehouse" /> The [[Antarctic Peninsula]] was formed by uplift and [[metamorphism]] of sea-bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by [[igneous]] intrusions and [[volcanism]]. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are [[andesite]] and [[rhyolite]] volcanics formed during the Jurassic Period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in [[Marie Byrd Land]] and [[Alexander Island]]. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the [[Ellsworth Mountains]] region, where the [[stratigraphy]] is more similar to the eastern part of the continent.
East Antarctica is geologically very old, dating from the [[Precambrian]] era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] and [[igneous]] platform which is the basis of the [[Shield (geology)|continental shield]]. On top of this base are various more modern rocks, such as [[sandstone]]s, [[limestone]]s, coal and [[shale]]s laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. In coastal areas such as [[Shackleton Range]] and [[Victoria Land]] some [[Geologic fault|faulting]] has occurred.
The main [[mineral]] resource known on the continent is [[coal]].<ref name="Trewby" /> It was first recorded near the [[Beardmore Glacier]] by [[Frank Wild]] on the [[Nimrod Expedition]], and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The [[Prince Charles Mountains]] contain significant deposits of [[iron ore]]. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the [[oil field|oil]] and [[natural gas field]]s found in the [[Ross Sea]] in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]].
== Иқлим ==
{{Main|CИқлми Антарктида}}
Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. It is a frozen desert with little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]; the South Pole itself receives almost none. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −85 °C and −90 °C (−121 °F and −130 °F) in the winter and about 30 degrees higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it.<ref name="weather">British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/jds/weather/weather.htm ''Weather in the Antarctic''] Retrieved [[February 9]] [[2006]].</ref> Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of higher elevation. [[Weather front]]s rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, [[ice]] there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 inches) in 48 hours have been recorded. [[Акс:Friesland-St-Boris.jpg|210px|thumb|right|Mountain glaciation.]] At the edge of the continent, strong [[katabatic wind]]s off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer more [[solar radiation]] reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the [[equator]] in an equivalent period.<ref name="cia" />
Antarctica is colder than the [[Arctic]] for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 km above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the [[Arctic Ocean]] covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.
Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The [[aurora australis]], commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole. Another unique spectacle is [[diamond dust]], a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A [[sundog]], a frequent atmospheric [[optical phenomenon]], is a bright "spot" beside the true [[sun]].<ref name="weather" />
[[Акс:iceberg09.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Tabletop [[iceberg]]s in Antarctica.]]
== Аҳолӣ ==
{{seealso|Demographics of Antarctica}}
Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent [[research station]]s throughout the continent. The population of people doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4000 in summer to 1000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.
[[Акс:Antarctic_researchers.jpg|thumb|left|Two American researchers studying [[plankton]] through [[microscope]]s.]]
The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the [[Antarctic Convergence]]) were English and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]], from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1000 in the summer (over 2000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included [[Grytviken]], [[Leith Harbour]], [[King Edward Point]], [[Stromness]], [[Husvik]], [[Prince Olav Harbour]], [[Ocean Harbour]] and [[Godthul]]. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of [[Grytviken]], Captain [[Carl Anton Larsen]], a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who adopted British citizenship in 1910, and his family.
[[Акс:Fieldwork-Melnik.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Field work.]]The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl [[Solveig Gunbjörg Jacobsen]], born in Grytviken on [[8 October]] [[1913]], and her birth registered by the resident British Magistrate of [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]]. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of [[Grytviken]], serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island<ref>R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.</ref>.
[[Emilio Marcos Palma]] was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland, at [[Esperanza Base|Base Esperanza]] in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the [[Argentina|Argentinean]] government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.<ref>''The Antarctic Sun'' [http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/oldissues2002-2003/answer.html Questions and answers] Retrieved [[February 9]] [[2006]].</ref>
== Олами наботот ва ҳайвонот ==
{{seealso|Antarctic ecozone}}
=== Олами навотот ===
[[Акс:Lichen_squamulose.jpg|thumb|right|More than 200 species of [[lichen]]s are known in Antarctica.]]
{{main|Antarctic flora}}
The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor [[soil]] quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit the flourishing of plants. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly [[moss]]es and [[liverwort]]s. The [[autotroph]]ic community is made up of mostly [[protist]]s. The [[flora]] of the continent largely consists of [[lichen]]s, [[bryophyte]]s, [[algae]], and [[fungi]]. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most.
There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are [[phytoplankton]]. Multicolored [[snow algae]] and [[diatoms]] are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: ''[[Deschampsia antarctica]]'' (Antarctic hair grass) and ''[[Colobanthus quitensis]]'' (Antarctic pearlwort).<ref>Australian Antarctic Division [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=5551 Antarctic Wildlife] Retrieved [[February 5]] [[2006]].</ref>
=== Олами ҳайвонот ===
Land [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] is nearly completely [[invertebrate]]. Invertebrate life includes [[microscopic]] [[mite]]s, [[lice]], [[Roundworm|nematodes]], [[tardigrades]], [[rotifers]], and [[springtail]]s. The [[midge (insect)|midge]], just 12 [[millimeter|mm]] in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than humans). The [[Snow Petrel]] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the [[South Pole]].
[[Акс:Emperor_penguin.jpg|thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguin]]s in [[Ross Sea]], Antarctica.]]
A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes [[penguin]]s, [[blue whales]], and [[fur seal]]s. The [[Emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the [[Adélie Penguin]] breeds further south than any other penguin. The [[Rockhopper penguin]] has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. [[King penguin]]s, [[Chinstrap penguin]]s, and [[Gentoo Penguin]]s also breed in the Antarctic.
The [[Antarctic fur seal]] was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The [[Weddell Seal]], a "[[true seal]]", is named after [[James Weddell|Sir James Weddell]], commander of [[United Kingdom|British]] sealing expeditions in the [[Weddell Sea]]. [[Antarctic krill]], which congregates in large [[swarm|schools]], is the [[keystone species]] of the [[ecosystem]] of the [[Southern Ocean]], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, [[squid]], [[icefish]], penguins, [[albatross]]es and many other birds.<ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm Creatures of Antarctica] Retrieved [[February 6]] [[2006]].</ref>
The passing of the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]] brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.<ref name="cia" /> Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of [[Patagonian toothfish]], remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes in 2000.<ref>BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1492380.stm Toothfish at risk from illegal catches]. Retrieved [[February 11]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=1539 Toothfish]. Retrieved [[February 11]] [[2006]].</ref>
== Сиёсат ==
[[Акс:Logistic-Support.jpg|210px|thumb|left|Resupply by the Uruguayan Navy vessel 'Vanguardia'.]]
As the only uninhabited continent, Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it but these claims are typically not recognized by others. The area between 90°W and 150°W is the only part of Antarctica, indeed the only solid land on Earth, not claimed by any country.<ref name="cia" />
Since 1959, claims on Antarctica have been suspended and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 [[Antarctic Treaty]] and other related agreements, collectively called the [[Antarctic Treaty System]]. For the purposes of the Treaty System, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of 60°S. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]]. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]].
The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvres, or the testing of any type of weapon. Military personnel or equipment are only permitted for scientific research or for other peaceful purposes.<ref>Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. [http://www.scar.org/treaty/ ''Antarctic Treaty''] Retrieved [[February 9]] [[2006]].</ref> The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was [[Operación 90|Operation NINETY]], undertaken ten years before the Antarctic Treaty by the [[Military of Argentina|Argentine military]].<ref>Antarctica Institute of Argentina. [http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM ''Argentina in Antarctica''] Retrieved [[February 9]] [[2006]].</ref>
The [[United States military]] issues the [[Antarctica Service Medal]] to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.<ref>U.S. Navy [http://www.history.navy.mil/medals/antarc.htm Antarctic Service Medal] Retrieved [[February 9]] [[2006]].</ref> Unlike other world powers, the United States has made no territorial claim in Antarctica, though it reserves the right to do so, nor does it recognise the claims of any other state.<ref>United States [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html CIA World Factbook] Retrieved [[July 2]] [[2006]].</ref>
=== Antarctic territories ===
[[Акс:antarctica.jpg|thumb|220px||Territorial claims of Antarctica.]]
{{main|Antarctic territorial claims}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Country
!Territory
!Claim limits
!Date
|-
| NONE
| Unclaimed territory
| {{coor d Antarctic|90|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|150|W}}
|
|-
| {{country|flagcountry|France}}
| [[Adelie Land]]
| {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|E}}
| 1924
|-
| {{country|flagcountry|Argentina}}
| [[Argentine Antarctica]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|25|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|74|W}}
| 1943
|-
| {{country|flagcountry|Australia}}
| [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|W}} and {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|W}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}}
| 1933
|-
| {{country|flagcountry|Chile}}
| [[Antártica Chilena Province|Antarctic Chilean Territory]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|53|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|90|W}}
| 1940
|-
| {{country|flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| [[British Antarctic Territory]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|80|W}}
| 1908
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{country|flagcountry|Norway}}
| [[Queen Maud Land|Dronning Maud Land]]
| {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}}
| 1939
|-
| [[Peter I Island]]
| {{coor dm|68|50|S|90|35|W|}}
| 1929
|-
| {{country|flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| [[Ross Dependency]]
| {{coor d Antarctic|150|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}}
| 1923
|}
The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap.
[[Germany]] also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as [[New Swabia]], between 1939 and 1945. It was situated from {{coor d Antarctic|20|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|10|W}}, overlapping Norway's claim.
== Иқтисодиёт ==
{{main|Иқтисодиёти Антарктида}}
Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991 [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.<ref name="cia">Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences [http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/AAimportance.htm Importance of Antarctica] Retrieved [[February 5]] [[2006]].</ref>
Small-scale [[tourism]] has existed since 1957 and is currently self-regulated by [[International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators]] (IAATO). However, not all vessels have joined the IAATO. Several [[ship]]s transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 27,950 tourists visited in the 2004-05 Antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010.<ref>International association of Antarctica Tour Operators. [http://www.iaato.org/tourism_stats.html Tourism Statistics]. Retrieved [[March 4]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm Politics of Antarctica] Retrieved [[February 5]] [[2006]].</ref> There has been some recent concern over the adverse environmental and ecosystem affects caused by the influx of visitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota have been made by both environmentalists and scientists.<ref>''Telegraph UK''. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/main.jhtml?xml=/travel/2006/02/11/etnewsant.xml&sSheet=/travel/2006/02/11/ixtrvhome.html ''Tourism threatens Antarctic'']. Retrieved [[March 4]] [[2006]].</ref> Antarctic sight seeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] in 1979 on [[Mount Erebus]], and resumed from Australia in the mid-1990s.
== Корҳои илмӣ ==
[[Акс:Amundsen-Scott_marsstation_ray_h_edit.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[full moon]] and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, [[power plant]] in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.]]
{{seealso|List of research stations in Antarctica}}
Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct [[experiment]]s not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4000 scientists operate [[research station]]s; this number decreases to nearly 1000 in the winter.<ref name="cia" /> The [[McMurdo Station]] is capable of housing more than 1000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.
Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. [[Geologist]]s tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from the [[outer space]], and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent [[Gondwanaland]]. [[Glaciologist]]s in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating [[ice]], [[snow|seasonal snow]], [[glacier]]s, and [[ice sheet]]s. [[Biologist]]s, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. [[Astrophysicist]]s in [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] are able to study the celestial dome and [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] because of the ozone hole and the location's dry, cold environment. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest [[IceCube|neutrino telescope]] in the world, built 2 km below Amundsen-Scott station.<ref>Antarctic Connection [http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/science/index.shtml Science in Antarctica] Retrieved [[February 4]] [[2006]].</ref>
Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the [[ozone layer]] in the [[atmosphere]] above Antarctica. In 1985 3 British Scientists working on data they had gathered at [[Halley]] Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. In 1998 [[NASA]] satellite data showed that the Antarctic [[ozone hole]] was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.<ref name="cia" />
=== Ҷирмҳои осмонӣ ===
[[Акс:ALH84001.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Метеорити Антарктикӣ, номгузорӣ шудааст [[ALH84001]], аз [[Марс]].]]
[[Метеорит]]ҳои Антарктида дар зонаи омӯзиши ҷирмҳои материалии осмонии [[Системаи офтобӣ]] хеле муҳим ба ҳисоб мераванд; бисёри онҳо аз [[астероид]]ҳо канда шуда ба [[Замин]] афтидаанд, аммо якчандашон аз [[сайёра]]ҳои дигар астанд. Якумин метеоритҳо дар Антарктида дар соли [[1912]]. Дар соли [[1969]] ҷопониҳо нуҳ [[метеорит]] дар Антарктида ёфтаанд. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the [[ice sheet]] in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved.<ref name="meteorite">NASA [http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm Meteorites from Antarctica] Retrieved [[February 9]] [[2006]].</ref>
Ин коллексия и калони метеоритҳо allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly [[ALH84001]] discovered by [[ANSMET]], are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.<ref name="meteorite" />
In 2006 a team of researchers from [[Ohio State University]] used gravity measurements by NASA's [[GRACE]] satellites to discover the 300-mile-wide [[Wilkes Land crater]], which probably formed about 250 million years ago.<ref name="crater">{{cite web| url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/erthboom.htm| title=Big Bang in Antarctica -- Killer Crater Found Under Ice| publisher=Research News| first=Pam Frost| last=Gorder| year=June 1, 2006}}</ref>
== Ба ин ҷо ҳам нигаред ==
[[Акс:1966 CPA 3318-3320 triangle.png|thumb|250px|10 Years of Soviet Research in Antarctica, 1966 [[USSR]] triangular [[postage stamp block]].]]
[[Акс:Souvenir-Sheet.jpg|210px|thumb|right|Stamp commemoration 10 Years of Bulgarian Antarctic Cartography.]]
* [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]]
* [[List of places with fewer than ten residents]] (Note: refers to permanent residents)
* [[Antarctica ecozone]]
* [[Antarctic Stamps]]
* [[Soviet Antarctic Expedition]]
* [[Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Chile Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Communications in Antarctica]]
* [[Flags of Antarctica]]
* ''[[Life in the Freezer]]'', a [[BBC]] natural history [[television]] series on life on and around Antarctica
* [[Transportation in Antarctica]]
* [[Ancient world maps]]
* [[World map]]
* [[List of Bulgarian toponyms in Antarctica]]
* The [[Icebird (ship)|Icebird]], an [[Australia]]n supply vessel.
== Зерқайдҳо ==
<!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cite/Cite.php -->
<div class="references-small"><references /></div>
== Пайвандҳои беруна ==
{{sisterlinks|Antarctica}}
* [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]
* [http://www.scar.org The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science]
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}
[[Гурӯҳ:Antarctica| ]]
[[Гурӯҳ:Continents]]
[[Гурӯҳ:Lists of coordinates]]
[[Гурӯҳ:Outposts of Antarctica| ]]
[[Гурӯҳ:Special territories]]
| 
.svg){kind=link}